Test of Practical Judgment (TOP-J): Construct, Criterion, and Incremental Validity in a Community Sample of Older Adults.

OBJECTIVE: The Test of Practical Judgment (TOP-J) is a stand-alone judgment measure that is considered to tap into aspects of executive functioning (EF) and inform clinical predictions of daily functioning in older adults. Past validation research is variable and has some limitations. The present study sought to examine the reliability and construct, criterion, and incremental validities of scores on TOP-J 9-item version (TOP-J/9). METHOD: Participants were 95 community-dwelling older adults aged 60 to 85. Participants completed TOP-J/9, measures of EF and global cognition, and three different modalities of instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) (self-report, performance-based tasks conducted in the laboratory, and performance-based tasks completed at home over 3 weeks). RESULTS: TOP-J/9 scores showed adequate internal consistency (α = 0.73) after correcting for the low number of items. TOP-J/9 was correlated with global cognition and EF, although EF did not survive correction for lower-order processes. Finally, although TOP-J/9 scores were associated with home-based IADL tasks (but not with self-report and laboratory-based IADLs), providing some evidence of criterion validity, they did not incrementally contribute to home-based IADL performance beyond other cognitive measures. However, when two items pertaining to social/ethical judgment were removed, this modified version of TOP-J did relate to EF beyond lower-order processes and contributed uniquely to prediction of home-based IADLs beyond other measures. CONCLUSION: Results suggest that TOP-J/9 taps into global cognitive status (but not necessarily EF) and predicts "real-world" functioning (but not above and beyond other cognitive measures). TOP-J psychometrics may be improved by removing two social/ethical items.

Examining the Cognitive Proficiency Index in rehabilitation patients.

This study examined the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI) in relation to other WAIS-IV indices, overall test battery mean (OTBM), and impairment (IMP) in an outpatient rehabilitation setting. Participants (N = 329) were 35% female and 88% Caucasian with average age and education of 42.9 (SD = 13.5) and 13.6 (SD = 2.4) years, respectively. Participants were grouped by diagnosis and validity: traumatic brain injury (TBI; n = 176; 39% mild), cerebrovascular accident (CVA; n = 52), other neurologic and psychiatric conditions (OTH; n = 49), and questionable performance validity (QPV; n = 52). OTBM was calculated from non-WAIS-IV tests; IMP was dichotomously defined as four or more non-WAIS-IV scores below cutoff (≤35 T). Significant group differences were observed on CPI, WAIS-IV indices, OTBM, and IMP. CPI significantly contributed (ß = .51) to a linear regression model predicting OTBM (R2 = .63) with education and GAI as covariates. A logistic regression model with IMP as the outcome and education, GAI, and CPI as predictors correctly classified 80% of cases with area under the curve of .86. A previously identified cutoff (CPI < 84) correctly classified 65-78% of clinical groups categorized by IMP. A novel cutoff (CPI ≤ 80) differentiated clinical participants with history of mild TBI from the QPV group with sensitivity of 44.2% and specificity of 89.7%. CPI showed incremental validity in predicting OTBM and IMP and warrants further study as a useful clinical addition to other WAIS-IV indices.

Interpreting executive and lower-order error scores on the timed subtests of the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) battery: Error analysis across the adult lifespan.

OBJECTIVE: The Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) is a battery of tests designed to measure executive functions (EF). Additionally, the D-KEFS contains lower-order tasks, designed to control for speed of visual scanning, sequencing, and verbal and graphomotor output. The construct and criterion validities of D-KEFS scores that are time-based are well established. However, the constructs measured by the D-KEFS error scores are poorly understood, making clinical interpretations of such scores difficult. This study examined the construct validity of D-KEFS errors committed on EF tasks and tasks designed to measure lower-order processes (i.e., non-EF tasks), across the adult lifespan. METHOD: Participants were 427 adults (18-93 years) who completed the timed subtests of the D-KEFS. Four hundred two participants also completed the Push-Turn-Taptap (PTT; a separate measure of EF) to allow cross-validation. RESULTS: General linear regressions showed that D-KEFS errors committed on the EF tests were associated with EF timed performance (assessed using the D-KEFS time-based scores and the PTT), but only among older adults. Importantly, errors committed on the D-KEFS tasks of lower-order processes were also associated with D-KEFS time-based EF performance, and this relationship held across the adult lifespan. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that among older adults EF errors on the D-KEFS can be interpreted as indices of EF, but such interpretations are not automatically warranted for younger adults. Additionally, errors committed on non-EF tasks contained within the D-KEFS battery can be interpreted as reflecting EF weaknesses across the adult lifespan.

Chronic versus recent expressive suppression burdens are differentially associated with cognitive performance among older adults.

Introduction: Expressive suppression (ES; suppression of affective behavior) has been shown to have a deleterious impact on subsequently administered tests of executive functions (EF), threatening validity, and reliability of EF assessment. Past research has shown that recent ES (i.e., across 24 hours prior to testing) and chronic ES (i.e., across 2 weeks prior to testing) have differential impact on test performance. The present study compared the association of chronic vs. recent ES with speed vs. accuracy of performance on tests of EF and tests of lower-order processes. METHOD: Participants were 255 community-dwelling older adults aged 60 and older. Participants completed timed subtests of the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System and the Burden of State Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. RESULTS: Hierarchical linear regressions examined the contributions of chronic vs. recent ES to test performance. Recent ES was related to scores of both speed and accuracy on EF tests. The association between recent ES and EF errors held beyond covariates (i.e., chronic ES, demographics, depression, and general cognitive status). In contrast, the association between recent ES and EF speed was fully explained by EF error scores. Chronic ES was associated only with speed of performance and only on lower-order tasks, but this relationship did not survive correction for cognitive, psychiatric, and demographic factors. CONCLUSIONS: Recent ES appears to be a risk factor for EF lapses. Chronic ES, while related to performance speed, seems to also relate to several other cognitive, psychiatric, and demographic factors, which themselves explain slower information processing.

Cognitive Training Program to Improve Working Memory in Older Adults with MCI.

OBJECTIVES: Deficits in working memory (WM) are associated with age-related decline. We report findings from a clinical trial that examined the effectiveness of Cogmed, a computerized program that trains WM. We compare this program to a Sham condition in older adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). METHODS: Older adults (N = 68) living in the community were assessed. Participants reported memory impairment and met criteria for MCI, either by poor delayed memory or poor performance in other cognitive areas. The Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS, Delayed Memory Index) and the Clinical Dementia Rating scale (CDR) were utilized. All presented with normal Mini Mental State Exams (MMSE) and activities of daily living (ADLs). Participants were randomized to Cogmed or a Sham computer program. Twenty-five sessions were completed over five to seven weeks. Pre, post, and follow-up measures included a battery of cognitive measures (three WM tests), a subjective memory scale, and a functional measure. RESULTS: Both intervention groups improved over time. Cogmed significantly outperformed Sham on Span Board and exceeded in subjective memory reports at follow-up as assessed by the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ). The Cogmed group demonstrated better performance on the Functional Activities Questionnaire (FAQ), a measure of adjustment and far transfer, at follow-up. Both groups, especially Cogmed, enjoyed the intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that WM was enhanced in both groups of older adults with MCI. Cogmed was better on one core WM measure and had higher ratings of satisfaction. The Sham condition declined on adjustment.

Randomized double-blind placebo trial of duloxetine in perioperative spine patients.

OBJECTIVE: This study describes a single-site investigation on the effects of a randomized double-blind placebo trial targeting duloxetine added to opioid use (duloxetine + opioid) against a comparator (placebo + opioid) in spine surgery patients, independent of major depression. DESIGN: The double-blind comparator study assessed two groups on opioids: one using duloxetine and the other a placebo. Subjects were administered the respective medication 2 weeks prior to surgery and continued on this for more than 3 months. Subjects were assessed at three times: prior to surgery, 4 weeks postsurgery, and 12 weeks postsurgery. They completed a battery of tests assessing for pain, adjustment, and psychiatric problems. SETTING: Neurosurgical outpatient and inpatient setting. PATIENTS: Sixty-eight patients completed the study. They received one of three types of elective spine surgery. INTERVENTIONS: Subjects were given duloxetine or placebo 2 weeks prior to surgery and continued with the regimen for more than 3 months. OUTCOMES: The primary focus was pain and second on adjustment factors and psychiatric symptoms: depression and anxiety. The amount of opioid use presurgery and postsurgery was also evaluated. RESULTS: There were differences among the groups on Brief Pain Inventory (BPI)-Average, the core pain marker, and BPI-Sleep. Within-subject analyses showed that duloxetine subjects improved significantly from baseline. For function, post-CIBIC and post-Functional Adjustment Questionnaire were significant, favoring duloxetine. Reduction of opioid use was not a factor; both groups' utilization declined. For affect, both groups were significantly improved over time. CONCLUSIONS: Duloxetine seems to improve pain, assist with maintaining function, and reduce intensity of affect.

Comparison of the WRAT4 reading subtest and the WTAR for estimating premorbid ability level.

The need to estimate premorbid ability level as part of a neuropsychological evaluation is well understood in the profession. The purpose of this study was to evaluate two popular reading tests for estimating premorbid ability. Participants were 102 undergraduate volunteers between the ages of 18 and 64 years (M = 25.89 years, SD = 9.54). Participants completed the Wechsler Test of Adult Reading (WTAR) and both forms of the Reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test-Fourth Edition (WRAT4). The WTAR was scored using the Predicted Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ) and the Demographic Predicted FSIQ methods presented in the manual. Repeated-measures analyses of variance revealed no significant difference between the two forms of the WRAT4 and the WTAR for both the Predicted FSIQ, F(2, 202) = 0.399, p = .671, and the Demographic Predicted FSIQ, F(2, 190) = 0.085, p = .918, scoring approaches. Concurrent validity correlation coefficients between the three items using the Predicted FSIQ ranged from r = .75 to r = .78; using the Demographic Predicted FSIQ, coefficients ranged from r = .50 to r = .76. Our data suggest that the WTAR offers a slightly more reliable statistical portrait of cognitive functioning, especially with a more educated and originally higher-functioning population.

Correcting for gender on the Cognistat Judgment subtest.

The Cognistat is a widely used screening instrument for the assessment of higher cerebral functioning. This study investigated the effects of gender and age on a specific item from the metric sequence of the Cognistat Judgment subtest. Participants consisted of 110 cognitively intact volunteers (45 males, 65 females). Results showed that females responded with 1-point answers, as defined by the manual, significantly more often than those who responded with a manual-defined 2-point response. Males responded with a 2-point answer with a significantly greater frequency than they responded with 1-point responses. The data indicate that a gender correction for females should be made to the Judgment subtest of the Cognistat.